3.2. CULTURAL CONTEXT

Question: If we look at this field where non-western cultures music is involved together with different cultures music, including with western music, many people think of "world music" as a suitable designation. How do you relate to this?

Answer: "World music" is a definition that arose in the eighties. The term was used on recordings of non-western music released in the UK and USA, mostly by western recording labels. In my view, "World music" has developed to a more "Multicultural" art/music meaning, a mixture of two or more music cultures. I do not see my music as "world music" even though I'm working in a multicultural expression. As a classical-contemporary musician/composer, I related to this field with a clear inspiration from gamelan. As a jazz musician/composer, I relate to jazz historical way of approaching inspiration from a foreign culture.

Much of the jazz music I listened to and still listen to, holds inspiration from eastern and African traditional music, with artists like John Coltrane, Don Cherry, Jan Garbarek, Charles Lloyd and Keith Jarrett as leading contributors. These artists made eastern/African-inspired jazz long before "world music" became a designation. In the last 40 years, I believe we have become more concerned with the origin of the music that holds inspiration from other cultures. Some of the reasons for this is more available access to source music, immigration, and in general, the world has become smaller. But more important is the development of public morality related to the treatment of other cultures.

As a western art/artistic researcher working within the environment of a foreign culture's music, I have a responsibility to reflect on the historical aspect of how we in the west have threatened other cultures. Our western history is full of misusing of power. Through the colonisation of African and Asian countries, we have harmed these countries and their cultural development. And with this concern, I believe different controversial designations arise, designations like "Orientalism", "Cultural appropriation" and "exoticism".

What are the sources for these designations?

If we start with the designation "Orientalism", which came from Edward Said in his book from 1978 "Orientalism"(1). In this book, he discusses how we in the west portray the Middle East and other cultures as "the other", something which stands in contradiction to us in the Western world. This understanding has affected the general perception of how the west has perceived the East.

Said writes:

"..... Also, we have European ideas about the Orient, which again repeats European superiority over the retarded Orient, and completely disregards the possibility that a more independent, or more sceptical, thinker might think otherwise."

The second designation, "Cultural appropriation", is an act where elements from a culture are used by someone in their (artistic)work, where this someone is an outsider and does not have an understanding or knowledge about this culture. It can be seen as a more modern way of discussing orientalism and related to the thought of western superiority of non-western world through imperialism and colonialism. Basically, through Cultural appropriation you, as a western, you hold the power to use a non-western culture as you what.

Cambridge university defines cultural appropriation like this;

"The act of taking or using things from a culture that is not your own, especially without showing that you understand or respect this culture." (2)

This definition is in line with how Arnd Schneider, Professor at Department of Social Anthropology, described the phenomena in Aftenposten (3) after the Norwegian politician Siv Jensen had worn a native American suit during a "theme"-party at a governmental event.

But this discussion has many nuances and can be related to a much bigger political debate. In the political picture, there are several issues. According to Schneider, it would be harmful if:

1. the privileged copy the less privileged

2. it is without respect for the other culture

3. Other cultures are re-defined

As an artist creating art products that have inspiration from a non-western culture, it is essential to reflect on these different perspectives. In the next section, I will discuss how Arnd Schneider explains cultural appropriation, mentioned above, and relate this to my research.

1. the privileged copy the less privileged.

Suppose we look at me, as a western, as more privileged: My intention is not to copy a tradition. My benefits from the non-western culture are the inspiration and to be able to use the gamelan instruments as a part of my artistic work. But does my work have any undesirable effect on gamelan music and tradition? I believe my work is positive for the gamelan culture. I always refer to my knowledge about this culture, and I think my use of these instruments gives a new way of how to work with non-western culture.

2. it is done without respect for the other culture

If you transfer this to my research, then I have tried to understand gamelan music through fieldwork. I have studied gamelan directly with Tjokorda Raka and through him and living in Bali for an extended period gained insight into several aspects with and about gamelan. I have experienced the social context, seen how the instruments are made and used, how to respect these instruments and the religion, how the gamelan music is continually changing and how the local people take care of the culture. My research then has a background in my fieldwork, and in the reflection, I aim to show an openness to what I have learned. This knowledge of gamelan gives me as a musician and composer a new palette, and this palette I want to use to create new art products.

3.Other cultures are re-defined

Western composers also influence gamelan composers. An example that clearly shows this is my field recording from a ceremony in Ubud Village from 2012.

1. Zaid text

2. Cambridge ap text

3. Arne Schneider text

Dewa Alit piece. Own field recording, Ubud 2012

Ex. 3.2.1.

The example above is a composition by Dewa Alit. (also used in part. 1.2. - musical background) This piece is created in different time signatures and contains poly-rhythmic and rhythmic modulations, which are not elements in traditional Gamelan music. The fact that this piece is performed in a ceremony at all is, as far as I can understand, a significant statement in the Balinese culture. It shows the importance of gamelan and how they view and accept innovation even in more religious and traditional contexts.

8. Ziporyn text

The third definition I mentioned above; "exoticism", is more related to a" point of view". Ralph P. Locke discusses this in his article "A Broader View of Musical Exoticism»(4). Here, Locke points at exoticism as something that is far away from the actors' familiar surroundings. In western art, exoticism is an inspiration from a non-western source, which is something Sara J. Oshinsky writes about in her essay "Exoticism in the Decorative Arts". In this essay, she discusses how many in the west considered non-western art and design as quaint and uncorrupted by industrial capitalism during the 19th century. She says:

"While English critics complained about the lack of integrity and poor design in the utilitarian goods that were being produced in their factories, they exalted the arts of pre-industrialised nations and held them in great esteem as supreme examples of good design. Because of their purity of design, Islamic ceramics, Indian textiles, and Japanese prints were considered aesthetically superior to European goods, which aimed for commercial novelty." (5)

If we now look at "exoticism" as a musical phenomenon. In this view, Claire Mabilat defines in her book "Orientalism and representations of music in the nineteenth-century British popular arts" (2008) exoticism as an artistic tool while orientalism has a cultural or political agenda(6). Exoticism then works as an artistic palette that contributes to positive inspiration. If you see this in the light of Claude Debussy, then there is little doubt that the exoticness in gamelan influenced Debussy. He incorporated gamelan inspiration into his western classical aesthetic, and in this way, he created new music that appeared exotic because of its multicultural character.

To summarise and distinguish between Cultural appropriation and exoticism in music/art:

Cultural appropriation makes improper use of and characterises the non-western culture(as Siv Jensen did wearing a native's American suite at a carnival). Through this caricatured expression, the non-western culture is dis-respected.

On the other hand, exoticism in music/art holds a respect for the non-western culture, and the artist recognises this inspiration as a driving force in the artwork. It does not make use of clichés as an element of recognition.

As mentioned earlier, much of the music I listen to, hold an exotic expression. I have been an admirer of John Coltrane's music, especially his quartet from the sixties to his death in 1967. During this period he discovered Indian music, and through reading Indian philosophy and studies with Ravi Shankar, Coltrane incorporated these elements in his style. His most well-known compositions are "India" and "Om", but several other compositional titles suggested an affection for Indian or other religions, like "A love supreme", "Ascension", "Selflessness", and "Meditations". He also incorporated instruments from India, like Shehnai and Sitar. (Featured on John Coltrane Quartet - Complete live at Village Vanguard) The heritage of Coltrane was, in many ways, a new path followed by several other jazz musicians. Musicians such as John McLaughlin, Dave Liebman and Jan Garbarek, to name a few.

As Nat Hentoff comments Coltrane position as a jazz artist, "Coltrane became a theosophist of jazz... In this respect, as well as musically, he has been a powerful influence on many musicians since" (7)

Norwegian singer Kristin Asbjørnsen uses African instruments on several recording, including "Traces of you" (Global Sonics / 2018), represented by Suntou Susso on Kora. In my opinion, Asbjørnsens artistic goal is to show her interest in African music and soundscape. The kora colours the recording, and if a different instrument had replaced it, the music would not have been the same.

These are two examples of music where western music creators are using non-western music as inspiration. The musical sources and their culture are here, from my perspective, treated with respect, through these artists' detailed study of the music. In this way, they are using non-western music as a source for creating their music, which is not the same as creating their version of this music.

Question: Are the designations you mention, "Orientalism", "Cultural appropriation" and "exoticism", something people might associate with your project?

Answer: An art project dealing with another culture's traditions and instruments may be controversial. My research project "Eastern rebellion" can easily fall under this category, where my understanding and interpretation of this non-western culture, in my case Indonesian gamelan music, together with my background as a performer and composer, form the framework for the project. In that way; yes, exoticism is, through my interest in and work with a non-western culture, definitely something that fits my project. The other designation, "Orientalism" and "Cultural appropriation", is used towards a western way of disrespectful threatening a non-western culture. If the starting point is me and ask; what can I transfer through my research which shows gamelan music and tradition negatively or unfairly? I do not think I am doing this and. In my opinion, I'm presenting this culture in a positive, fair and probably new way. With "a new way" I'm mostly thinking about my improvisation approach. I support this argument by my gamelan studies, and though this, I have gained enormous respect for this culture.

Evan Ziporyn, a composer and musician which has a long history of working with gamelan and Indonesian, says the following:

"I think for the Balinese—and I don't want to generalise because they're all individuals and they all have their own opinions about it—their tradition is intact. Some guy, or some woman, coming in and doing some weird thing with gamelan, that's interesting to them if they're the kind of person that's interested in these curiosities. They either think of it as a compliment if you're respectful personally, or they think of it as a curiosity or a distraction. It doesn't threaten their music. It's a renewable resource, right? If you learn something about a melody or a structure, and you use it, that doesn't hurt." (8)

Even though my intuition agrees, I am not in the position to fully validate all the aspects of this quote. Ziporyn has a considerable experience cooperating with Balinese people. He has written several pieces for Balinese gamelan, performed by Balinese gamelan orchestras. What I am sure of is that the Balinese gamelan tradition will be intact. Gamelan is an enormous culture in Indonesia. Indonesia is the fourth largest country in the world, with its 260 million inhabitants.

The target group of my research project is everyone. Still, in practice, it will be western, without a more in-depth knowledge of gamelan, where gamelan for most people is an exotic style of music. Hopefully, this audience will be curious about the exotic-ness in my music, and this might lead to an interest in traditional gamelan music.

If we turn it upside down: What would we have thought of a West African kora (African harp) musician and composer who came to Norway to learn Norwegian folk music, played it on his kora, made attempts to learn and play triangle harp / Scandinavian harp, then make music with this as a starting point? I believe we would have thought it would have been exciting and showed a different angle on our cultural heritage. I also don't think we necessarily needed to like it musically to recognise the effort and the concept. BUT, of course, it must have a certain quality and artistic respect.

Of course, the fictive example above is just based on a musical idea and does not have a discussion based on the "rich" western versus a "poor" non-western culture. The way the industrial country has treated developing countries is the foundation for designations like "Orientalism" and "Cultural appropriation."

Question: Where are the borders between a "respectful way" and a "disrespectful way"?

Answer: There are art and music in this field that is not done in a right and respectful way. I will not go into concrete music examples that I don't like in this regard, because pointing at something that I feel is "wrong", does not make my project more "right". And there is, of course, grey-zones where you preconceptions affect your understanding, the art is misunderstood, under-communicated, or the context is wrong. For me, the most important thing is to try to see your work within the non-western culture from a native peoples point of view. If your reflection regarding these issues is positive, then you show respect for the non-western culture. To be able to reflect thorough, I have learned the gamelan tradition as comprehensively as possible. What is important to me is that I am not claiming to make gamelan music, but my music is inspired by gamelan, and, for most parts, played on gamelan instruments. You could because of this, of course, claim it is gamelan. I hope, especially, through the work with project 2 – "Mantra" and project 4 – "Espen Aalberg & En En En(both the recording and the performance at my final presentation concert) the audience will enjoy and find this musical landscape unique. This unique-ness leads back to two things: the gamelan instruments and our performance. These elements are inseparable for the expression.

The examples mentioned earlier in the text is music that mixes music from different cultures and is, in that way, multicultural music. In my view, this is the same with Claude Debussy, John Cage, Per Nørgård, among many others who all mix exotic inspiration with different directions of western classical music.

Question: In the music examples you mentioned above this music is inspired by non-western culture, but natives from this culture play the native instruments. How do you reflect on issues where you, as a western, perform on non-western instruments?

Answer: As a percussionist, I am used to playing instruments from different cultures, as I mentioned in the chapter my musical background. Most of the percussion instruments have their unique technique, and I am always trying to make these instruments sound as good as I can. During my six-month intensive gamelan study, I learned how to play most of the gamelan instruments, except the string instrument Rebab. Where the other musicians in my projects performed on gamelan, I made parts or concepts where these instruments would sound good, even if non-percussionists performed on them. But it is essential to treat the gamelan right. During the recording of "Basement sessions vol. 4 - The Bali Tapes" I borrowed instruments from the Cudamani ensemble, with the help of my teacher Tjokorda Raka. Raka is a traditional Balinese man and would say if something is not right. An episode in 2012 where I did blaspheme against the gamelan instruments was by stepping over the longer reyongs to pick up my camera (it was so overcrowded with gamelan that this was by far the shortest way). Raka then stopped the teaching, and the rest became a lesson in Hinduism, and the significance gamelan holds in this religion. A person should not step over the gamelan instrument as it is to equivalent to stepping over god. This lesson made an impression regarding the seriousness regarding these issues.

Raka's appreciation of the music we recorded was, for me, permission to perform what we did. I would not say he understood what we did because he does not know the aesthetics of jazz. He could appreciate the elements and sounds from gamelan, but the other instruments, the double-bass, saxophone and trumpet, were exotic for him. Except for his nephew, Agung Deathra, who mixes death-metal and gamelan, he had earlier experienced few mixes of western instruments and gamelan. Here is an example of Agung's music.

5. Eksotisme design text

6. Mabilat text

7. Hentoff text

4. Locke text